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Biafra
, officially the
Republic of Biafra
, was a secessionist state in eastern
Nigeria
that existed from 30 May 1967 to January 1970. It took its name from the
Bight of Biafra
, the Atlantic bay to its south. The inhabitants were mostly the
Igbo people
who led the secession due to economic, ethnic, cultural and religious tensions among the various peoples of Nigeria.
The secession of the Biafran region was the primary cause of the
Nigerian Civil War
, also known as the Biafran War. The state was formally recognised by
Gabon
,
Haiti
,
Ivory Coast
,
Tanzania
and
Zambia
.
[2]
Other nations which did not give official recognition, but provided support and assistance to Biafra included
Israel
,
France
,
Spain
,
Portugal
,
Norway
,
Rhodesia
,
South Africa
and the
Vatican City
.
[3]
[4]
[
unreliable source?
]
Biafra also received aid from
non-state actors
, including
Joint Church Aid
,
Holy Ghost Fathers
of Ireland,
Caritas International
,
MarkPress
and U.S.
Catholic Relief Services
.
[4]
[
unreliable source?
]
After two-and-a-half years of war, during which over three million Biafran civilians died from starvation caused by the total blockade of the region by the Nigerian government, Biafran forces under the motto of "No-victor, No-vanquished" surrendered to the
Nigerian Federal Military Government (FMG)
, and Biafra was reintegrated into Nigeria.
[5]
Secession
[
edit
]
Main article:
Nigerian Civil War
In 1960,
Nigeria
became independent of the
United Kingdom
. As with many other new African states, the borders of the country did not reflect earlier ethnic boundaries. Thus, the northern region of the country was (and still is) made up of a
Muslim
majority, while the southern population was (and still is) predominantly
Christian
. Following independence, Nigeria was divided primarily along ethnic lines with
Hausa
and
Fulani
majority in the north,
Yoruba
and
Igbo
majority in the south-west and south-east respectively.
[6]
In January 1966,
a military coup occurred
during which 30 political leaders including Nigeria's Prime Minister, Sir
Abubakar Tafawa Balewa
, and the Northern premier, Sir
Ahmadu Bello
, were killed. It was alleged to be an Igbo coup because
Nnamdi Azikiwe
, the President, of Igbo extraction, and the premier of the southeastern part of the country were not killed.
[7]
[8]
[9]
Many others who held the 1966 coup in mind as being master-minded by the "Igbo" ethnic group of Nigeria did so because Major Kaduna Nzeogu was perceived to be an "Igbo soldier" and he led the coup.
In July 1966 northern officers and army units staged a counter-coup. Muslim officers named a General from a small ethnic group (the Angas) in central Nigeria, General
Yakubu "Jack" Gowon
, as the head of the Federal Military Government (FMG). The two coups deepened Nigeria's ethnic tensions. In September 1966,
approximately 30,000 Igbo were killed in the north
, and some Northerners were killed in backlashes in eastern cities.
[10]
Now, therefore, I, Lieutenant-Colonel Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu, Military Governor of Eastern Nigeria, by virtue of the authority, and pursuant to the principles, recited above, do hereby solemnly proclaim that the territory and region known as and called Eastern Nigeria together with her continental shelf and territorial waters shall henceforth be an independent sovereign state of the name and title of "The Republic of Biafra".
Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu
[11]
Biafra as a territory existed long before the amalgamation and independence of Nigeria as a republic.
Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu
in pursuit of a more agreeable arrangement for peaceful co-existence of all regions in Nigeria proposed for a confederated Nigeria.
In January 1967, the military leaders and senior police officials of each region met in
Aburi
, Ghana and agreed on a loose confederation of regions. The Northerners were at odds with the
Aburi Accord
;
Obafemi Awolowo
, the leader of the Western Region warned that if the Eastern Region seceded, the Western Region would also, which persuaded the northerners.
[10]
After the federal and eastern governments failed to reconcile, on 26 May the Eastern region voted to secede from Nigeria. On 30 May,
Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu
, the South Eastern Region's military governor, announced the Republic of Biafra, citing the Easterners killed in the post-coup violence.
[6]
[10]
[12]
The large amount of oil in the region created conflict, as oil is a major component of the Nigerian economy.
[13]
The Eastern region was very ill-equipped for war, out-manned and out-gunned by the military of the remainder of Nigeria. Their advantages included fighting in their homeland and support of most South Easterners.
[14]
War
[
edit
]
The FMG launched "police measures" to annex the Eastern Region on 6 July 1967. The FMG's initial efforts were unsuccessful; the Biafrans successfully launched their own offensive, occupying areas in the
mid-Western Region
in August 1967. By October 1967, the FMG had regained the land after intense fighting.
[10]
[15]
In September 1968, the federal army planned what Gowon described as the "final offensive". Initially the final offensive was neutralised by Biafran troops. In the latter stages, a Southern FMG offensive managed to break through the fierce resistance.
[10]
During the war there were great shortages of food and medicine throughout Biafra, due largely to the Nigerian government's blockade of the region as suggested in a number of arguments by leaders of the Nigerian Government.
Anthony Enahoro stated that "there are various ways of fighting a war. You might starve your enemy into submission, or you might kill him on the battlefield." Obafemi Awolowo said, "All is fair in war, and starvation is one of the weapons of war and I don't see why we should feed our enemies in order for them to fight harder."
Many volunteer bodies organised the
Biafran airlift
which provided blockade-breaking relief flights into Biafra, carrying food and medicines in, and later provided means of evacuation for refugee children. On 30 June 1969, the Nigerian government banned all
Red Cross
aid to Biafra; two weeks later it allowed medical supplies through the front lines, but restricted food supplies.
[15]
Later in October 1969, Ojukwu appealed to the United Nations to mediate a
cease-fire
.
The federal government called for Biafra's surrender. In December, the FMG managed to cut Biafra in half, primarily by the efforts of 3 Marine Commando Division of the
Nigerian Army
, led by then-Colonel
Benjamin Adekunle
, popularly called "The Black Scorpion", and later by
Olusegun Obasanjo
. Ojukwu fled to
Ivory Coast
, leaving his chief of staff,
Philip Effiong
, to act as the "officer administering the government". Effiong called for a ceasefire on 12 January and submitted to the FMG.
[10]
By then, more than one million people had died in battle or from starvation.
[16]
[17]
Biafra was reabsorbed into Nigeria on 15 January.
Geography
[
edit
]
Satellite pictures of Biafra
Biafra comprised over 29,848 square miles (77,310 km
2
) of land,
[18]
with terrestrial borders shared with
Nigeria
to the north and west, and with
Cameroon
to the east. Its coast was on the
Gulf of Guinea
in the south.
The former country's northeast bordered the
Benue Hills
and mountains that lead to Cameroon. Three major rivers flow from Biafra into the Gulf of Guinea: the
Imo River
, the
Cross River
and the
Niger River
.
[19]
The territory of Biafra is covered nowadays by the
Nigerian states
of
Cross River
,
Ebonyi
,
Enugu
,
Anambra
,
Imo
,
Bayelsa
,
Rivers
,
Abia
,
Delta
and
Akwa Ibom
.
Language
[
edit
]
Whilst it existed, the predominant language of Biafra was
Igbo
.
[20]
Along with Igbo, there were a variety of other languages, including
Efik
,
Ijaw
,
Annang
and
Ibibio
. However,
English
was the
official language
.
Economy
[
edit
]
An early institution created by the Biafran government was the Bank of Biafra, accomplished under "Decree No. 3 of 1967".
[21]
The bank carried out all central banking functions including the administration of foreign exchange and the management of the public debt of the Republic.
[21]
The bank was administered by a governor and four directors; the first governor, who signed on bank notes, was
Sylvester Ugoh
.
[22]
A second decree, "Decree No. 4 of 1967", modified the Banking Act of the Federal Republic of Nigeria for the Republic of Biafra.
[21]
The bank was first located in Enugu, but due to the ongoing war, the bank was relocated several times.
[21]
Biafra attempted to finance the war through foreign exchange. After Nigeria announced their currency would no longer be legal tender (to make way for a new currency), this effort increased. After the announcement, tons of Nigerian bank notes were transported in an effort to acquire foreign exchange. The currency of Biafra had been the Nigerian pound, until the Bank of Biafra started printing out its own notes, the
Biafran pound
.
[21]
The new currency went public on 28 January 1968, and the Nigerian pound was not accepted as an exchange unit.
[21]
The first issue of the bank notes included only 5 shillings notes and 1 pound notes. The Bank of Nigeria exchanged only 30 pounds for an individual and 300 pounds for enterprises in the second half of 1968.
[21]
In 1969 new notes were introduced:
£
10, £5, £1, 10
/-
and 5/-.
[21]
It is estimated that a total of £115–140 million Biafran pounds were in circulation by the end of the conflict, with a population of about 14 million, approximately £10 per person.
[21]
In uncirculated condition these are very inexpensive and readily available for collectors.
Military
[
edit
]
Roundel
of the Biafran Air Force.
At the beginning of the war Biafra had 3,000 soldiers, but at the end of the war the soldiers totalled 30,000.
[23]
There was no official support for the Biafran army by any other nation throughout the war, although arms were clandestinely acquired. Because of the lack of official support, the Biafrans manufactured many of their weapons locally. Europeans served in the Biafran cause; German born
Rolf Steiner
was a lieutenant colonel assigned to the 4th Commando Brigade and Welshman
Taffy Williams
served as a Major until the very end of the conflict.
[24]
The Biafrans managed to set up a small yet effective air force. The BAF commanders were Chude Sokey and later Godwin Ezeilo, who had trained with the Royal Canadian Air Force.
[25]
Early inventory included two
B-25 Mitchells
, two
B-26 Invaders
, (one piloted by Polish World War II ace
Jan Zumbach
, known also as John Brown), a converted
DC-3
and one
Dove
. In 1968 the Swedish pilot
Carl Gustaf von Rosen
suggested the MiniCOIN project to General Ojukwu. By early 1969, Biafra had assembled five
MFI-9Bs
in
Gabon
, calling them "Biafra Babies". They were coloured green, were able to carry six 68 mm anti-armour rockets under each wing and had simple sights. The six aeroplanes were flown by three Swedish pilots and three Biafran pilots. In September 1969, Biafra acquired four ex-Armee de l'Air North American
T-6Gs
, which were flown to Biafra the following month, with another aircraft lost on the ferry flight. These aircraft flew missions until January 1970 and were flown by Portuguese ex-military pilots.
[25]
Legacy
[
edit
]
A child suffering the effects of severe hunger and
malnutrition
during the Nigerian blockade
The international humanitarian organisation
Médecins Sans Frontières
originated in response to the suffering in Biafra.
[26]
During the crisis, French medical volunteers, in addition to Biafran health workers and hospitals, were subjected to attacks by the Nigerian army and witnessed civilians being murdered and starved by the blockading forces. French doctor
Bernard Kouchner
also witnessed these events, particularly the huge number of starving children, and, when he returned to France, he publicly criticised the Nigerian government and the Red Cross for their seemingly complicit behaviour. With the help of other French doctors, Kouchner put Biafra in the media spotlight and called for an international response to the situation. These doctors, led by Kouchner, concluded that a new aid organisation was needed that would ignore political/religious boundaries and prioritise the welfare of victims.
[27]
In their study,
Smallpox and its Eradication
, Fenner and colleagues describe how vaccine supply shortages during the Biafra smallpox campaign led to the development of the focal vaccination technique, later adopted worldwide by the
World Health Organization
, which led to the early and cost effective interruption of smallpox transmission in west Africa and elsewhere.
[28]
On 29 May 2000, the Lagos
Guardian
newspaper reported that the now ex-president
Olusegun Obasanjo
commuted to retirement the dismissal of all military persons who fought for the breakaway state of Biafra during Nigeria's 1967–1970 civil war. In a national broadcast, he said the decision was based on the belief that "justice must at all times be tempered with mercy".
[29]
In July 2006 the
Center for World Indigenous Studies
reported that government sanctioned killings were taking place in the southeastern city of
Onitsha
, because of a shoot-to-kill policy directed toward Biafran loyalists, particularly members of the
Movement for the Actualization of the Sovereign State of Biafra
(MASSOB).
[30]
[31]
In 2010, researchers from
Karolinska Institutet
in Sweden and
University of Nigeria, Nsukka
, showed that Igbos born in Biafra during the years of the famine were of higher risk of suffering from obesity, hypertension and impaired glucose metabolism compared to controls born a short period after the famine had ended. The findings are in line with the developmental origin of health and disease hypothesis suggesting that malnutrition in early life is a predisposing factor for cardiovascular diseases and diabetes later in life.
[32]
[33]
Movement to re-secede
[
edit
]
There is no central authority coordinating the Biafran re-secession campaign. The
Movement for the Actualization of the Sovereign State of Biafra
(MASSOB) is one of the numerous groups advocating for a separate country for the people of south-eastern Nigeria.
[17]
They accuse the state of marginalising the Igbo people. MASSOB says it is a peaceful group and advertises a 25-stage plan to achieve its goal peacefully.
[34]
It has two arms of government, the Biafra
Government in Exile
and Biafra Shadow Government.
[35]
The Nigerian government accuses MASSOB of violence; MASSOB's leader, Ralph Uwazuruike, was arrested in 2005 and was detained on treason charges. He has since been released. In 2009, MASSOB launched an unrecognized "Biafran International Passport" in response to persistent demand by some Biafran sympathizers in the diaspora.
[36]
On 16 June 2015, the Supreme Council of Elders of the Indigenous People of Biafra, another pro-Biafra organization, sued the Federal Republic of Nigeria for the right to self-determination within their region as a sovereign state.
[37]
Another group, Indigenous People of Biafra (IPOB), led by a United Kingdom-based Biafran,
Nnamdi Kanu
, reinvigorated the quest for Biafran realisation in 2012. He established an illegal radio station to champion the Biafran cause, Radio Biafra, which has been broadcasting at various frequencies around the world. The Nigerian Government, through its broadcasting regulators, the Broadcasting Organisation of Nigerian (BON) and Nigerian Communications Commission (NCC), has sought to clamp down on the UK-based station with limited success. On 17 November 2015, the Abia state police command seized an IPOB radio transmitter in
Umuahia
.
[38]
[39]
Mr. Kanu is presently being detained by the federal government.
The various groups clamouring for the restoration of the indepedence of Biafra have often been beset with internal wranglings that have impede its secessionist efforts. On 19 October 2015, Chief Ralph Uwazuruike of the Movement for the Actualization of Sovereign State of Biafra (MASSOB) disclosed that the director of Radio Biafra and leader of the Indigenous People of Biafra (IPOB), Nnamdi Kanu, does not belong to the movement and was sacked for indiscipline and for inciting violence among members.
[40]
[41]
There has been a renewed, intense agitation for Biafran secession. Since August 2015, protests have erupted in cities across Nigeria's south-east. Though peaceful, the protesters have been routinely attacked by the Nigerian police and army, with scores of people reportedly killed. Many others have been injured and/or arrested.
[42]
On 23 December 2015, the federal government charged Nnamdi Kanu with treasonable felony in the Federal High Court in
Abuja
.
[43]
According to the South-East Based Coalition of Human Rights Organizations (SBCHROs), security forces under the directive of the federal government has killed 80 members of the Indigenous People of Biafra (IPOB) and their supporters between 30 August 2015 and 9 February 2016 in a
renewed clampdown
on the movement .
[44]
A report by
Amnesty International
also accuses the Nigerian military of killing at least 17 unarmed Biafran separatists in the city of
Onitsha
prior to a march on 30 May 2016 commemorating the 49th anniversary of the initial secession of Biafra.
[45]
Meaning of "Biafra" and location
[
edit
]
Little is known about the literal meaning of the word Biafra. The word Biafra most likely derives from the subgroup Biafar or
Biafada
[46]
of the Tenda ethnic group who reside primarily in
Guinea-Bissau
.
[47]
Manuel Álvares
(1526–1583), a Portuguese Jesuit educator, in his work
Ethiopia Minor and a geographical account of the Province of Sierra Leone
,
[48]
writes about the
"Biafar heathen"
in chapter 13 of the same book.
[49]
The word Biafar thus appears to have been a common word in the Portuguese language back in the 16th century
Historical maps
[
edit
]
Early modern
maps of Africa from the 15th–19th centuries, drawn by European
cartographers
from accounts written by explorers and travellers, reveal some information about Biafra:
The original word used by the European travellers was not
Biafra
but
Biafara
,
[50]
[51]
Biafar
[52]
and sometimes also
Biafares
.
[53]
The exact original region of Biafra is not restricted to Eastern Nigeria alone. According to the maps, the European travellers used the word
Biafara
to describe the entire region east of River Niger going down to the Mount Cameroon region, thus including Cameroon and a large area around Gabon.The Bight of Biafra lies in the present South-South Region of Nigeria and was renamed to Bight of Bonny by the Nigerian Government. The word
Biafara
also appears on maps from the 18th century in the area around Gambia.
[54]
French map of the Gulf of Guinea from 1849
Maps indicating the word
Biafara
(sometimes also
Biafares
or
Biafar
) with corresponding year:
1584
1644
1660
1662
1707
1729
1737
1805
1858
1871
Maps from the 19th century indicating Biafra as the region around today's Cameroon:
1843
1880
1890
Additional maps from the Michigan State University Map Collection
Government
[
edit
]
Sovereignty over what is referred to as the Biafran region is currently with the Nigerian federal government and the various local governments at the helm of affairs in the states into which the region has been carved up by Nigerian military governments in 1967, 1991 and 1996.
See also
[
edit
]
Ambazonia
Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie
:
Half of a Yellow Sun
Bruce Mayrock
2015-2016 Killing of Biafran Protesters
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